SUBSTANCE/DRUG CLASSIFICATION AND ITS ASSOCIATED EFFECTS

  

3.0 Drug Classification

A drug can be categorised based on the active ingredient,  chemical type or how it is used to treat a specific condition. Each drug is divided into one or more drug classes. A drug's activity can make another medicine less effective. They may equally alter how the medicine is absorbed or used by your body. An interaction that affects one medicine will likely affect others in the same class when categorised by mechanism of action (FDA 2019).

Physicians have long known that different medications have varying effects on different persons. Drugs can, however, be grouped or categorised based on common symptomatologies or effects. These long-standing, medically accepted truths underpin the categorizing procedure. Stimulants, Depressants, Cannabinoids, Psychedelics, Opioids, Dissociatives, and Empathogens are the seven different types of drugs. Each of these kinds of drugs has the potential to impact on a person's central nervous system and impair their normal faculties, including their ability to safely operate a motor vehicle (FDA 2019).

Poly Drug Use   'Poly drug usage' or'mixing drugs' refers to using more than one drug in a single session. This entails consuming many drugs at once, including alcohol and prescription medications. Anything you eat or drink might cause an interaction; however, certain medication combinations are more dangerous than others.   It is usually best to avoid using drugs altogether, and each individual will respond differently depending on personal circumstances (physical and mental health, if they have underlying illnesses), the contents and potency of the substance they are taking, and the situation they are in (if they are with people they trust, if they are in a new setting, if it is a loud environment like a festival etc). Types of Poly Substance Use Intentional Poly Substance Use: When a person takes a drug to augment or lessen the effects of another drug, or to experience the effects of the combination, this is known as intentional polysubstance usage. Unintentional Poly Substance Use: happens when a person unknowingly consumes medications that have been blended or cut with additional substances, such as fentanyl.   NB: Mixing drugs, whether intentionally or unintentionally, is never safe since the combined effects are often harsher and more unpredictable than one drug alone, and can even be fatal.

1.0 THE CONCEPT EPIDEMIOLOGY

The study and analysis of the distribution, patterns, and determinants of health and disease conditions in a given population is known as epidemiology. It is a cornerstone of public health, influencing policy and evidence-based practice by identifying disease risk factors and preventative healthcare priorities. Epidemiology is the discipline of medicine that studies all of the factors that influence whether or not diseases and disorders exist. Epidemiological study enables us to learn how many people are affected by a sickness or problem, if those numbers are changing, and how the disorder affects society and the economy (LastJM, 2012).

Many epidemiological studies try to figure out how the number of persons affected by a disease fluctuates over time. However, the definition of a condition changes over time, making calculations more challenging. Even scientists working in the same profession may disagree about the best technique to quantify or define a certain illness.

Epidemiological studies of substance use and substance use disorders (SUDs) have yielded a wealth of information on substance use patterns in globally representative populations (Degenhardt et al. 2008; Johnston et al. 2011; SAMHSA 2011). For decades, the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), and the Services Administration for Mental Health and Substance Abuse (SAHMSA) have spent significant resources tracking drug use, abuse, and effects.

Herbs, leaves, and plants have been used to heal and control disease since the dawn of time. If medications are delivered correctly, they do not pose any hazard. (Sambo, 2008). Teenagers are the most vulnerable to substance misuse because they experiment with drugs in various ways.

Substance use is frequent among adolescents, according to epidemiological research, and the age of first use is falling; meaning that adolescents now start using substances earlier than they used to.  A considerable number of them thereafter develop a stereotypic pattern of use. It is generally recognized that some psychoactive substances have particularly negative impacts on mental health and cognitive functions, increasing the demand for mental health services for children and adolescents.

This section , further explains the epidemiology of substance abuse and substance use disorders using the following subheadings.

SECTION 1 Contents

1.0 The Concept Epidemiology -         -           -           -           8

-       Prevalence of Substance Abuse           -           -           -           10

1.2  Drug Misuse, Drug Abuse and Drug Addiction    -           11

-       Drug Misuse -  -           -           -           -           -           12

-       Drug Abuse -   -           -           -           -           -           12

-       Drug Addiction            -           -           -           -           13

-       Summary -       -           -           -           -           -           14

 

 

2.0 Overview                                                                

The use of illicit substances, alcohol, and cigarettes contributes significantly to the worldwide burden of disease. Knowledge of the primary features of substance use disorder natural history (incidence, remission, persistence, and relapse) is essential for a more comprehensive knowledge of the course and outcomes of substance use disorders.

The importance of "natural history" or "drug use career" approaches to understanding the process of drug use start, progression, addiction, cessation, and recovery has been increasingly stressed (Anglin et al., 1997, 2001; Hser and Anglin, 1991; Hser et al., 1997; Maddux and Desmond, 1986; Sobell et al., 1993; Valillant, 1988, 1992). According to findings in the United States, patterns of lifetime drug use and related disorders are significantly diverse. Many people try it out and then stop, while others become regular users, and only a small percentage of these become problematic or dependent users (Chen et al., 1997; Warner et al., 1995).

The National Drug Use and Health Survey (DUHS), for example, suggests that non-marijuana illicit drug use is low (marijuana 39 percent, cocaine 14 percent, methamphetamine 5 percent, and heroin 2 percent). Once they begin using, a tiny subset of heavy users tends to continue and accumulate issues until they are 'caught' in the criminal justice, health, or drug treatment systems.

This section , further explains the Natural Causes of substance abuse and substance use disorders using the following subheadings.

SECTION 2 Contents

2.0 Overview - -           -           -           -           -           -           17

2.1 Progression in Drug Use    -           -           -           -           17

-       Drug Use Initiation and Progression Phase      -           18

-       Experimentation Phase            -           -           -           -           19

-       Frequent Use Phase     -           -           -           -           19

-       Risky Use Phase          -           -           -           -           20

-       Dependence Phase       -           -           -           -           21

-       Additional Phase          -           -           -           -           22

-       Crisis/Treatment Phase             -           -           -           -           24

2.2 Patterns of Natural History of Substance Abuse     -           24

·         Gender Differences to Substance Abuse          -           -           25

·         Sex and Gender Differences in Substance Use            -           25

·         Sex and Gender Differrences in Substance Use

Treatment -      -           -           -           -           -           27

·         Racial/Ethnic Differences        -           -           -           28

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           29

 

3.0 Drug Classification

A drug can be categorised based on the active ingredient,  chemical type or how it is used to treat a specific condition. Each drug is divided into one or more drug classes. A drug's activity can make another medicine less effective. They may equally alter how the medicine is absorbed or used by your body. An interaction that affects one medicine will likely affect others in the same class when categorised by mechanism of action (FDA 2019).

Physicians have long known that different medications have varying effects on different persons. Drugs can, however, be grouped or categorised based on common symptomatologies or effects. These long-standing, medically accepted truths underpin the categorizing procedure. Stimulants, Depressants, Cannabinoids, Psychedelics, Opioids, Dissociatives, and Empathogens are the seven different types of drugs. Each of these kinds of drugs has the potential to impact on a person's central nervous system and impair their normal faculties, including their ability to safely operate a motor vehicle (FDA 2019).

This   section of the book discussed on  Substance/Drug Classifications And Its Associated Effects in which the author classified drugs into six (Stimulants, Central Nervous System Depressants (CNS), Hallucinogens, Opioids, Dissociatives and Empathogens) 

3.1 STIMULANTS     -           -           -           -           -           33

·         How are they put to use           -           -           -           -           33

·         Effects of Stimulants    -           -           -           -           33

·         Using Stimulants with other drugs       -           -           34

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           35

·         Dependence and tolerance       -           -           -           35

 

 3.1.0 Types Of Stimulants -   -           -           -           -           37

3.1.1 Amphetamines - -           -           -           -           -           38

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           38

·         What do they look like            -           -           -           -           38

·         Slang Names    -           -           -           -           -           38

·         How are Amphetamines Used?            -           -           -           38

·         Effects of Amphetamines         -           -           -           39

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           40

·         Descending Symptoms of Amphetamines       -           40

·         Amphetamines used with other medications (Drugs)   41

·         Long-Term Consequencies      -           -           -           41

·         Mental Health and Amphetamine Usage          -           -           42

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           42

·         Treatment Alternatives             -           -           -           -           42

 

3.1.2 Betel Nut            -           -           -           -           -           -           44

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           44

·         Cultural Practice          -           -           -           -           44

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           45

·         Betel Quids      -           -           -           -           -           45

·         Effects of Betel Nut     -           -           -           -           45

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           46

·         Using Betel Nut with Other Drugs       -           -           47

 

3.1.3 Caffeine -           -           -           -           -           -           48

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           48

·         How is caffeine used? -           -           -           -           48

·         Effects of caffeine        -           -           -           -           49

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           50

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           51

·         Using Caffeine with other Drugs         -           -           51

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           52

3.1.4 Cocaine -           -           -           -           -           -           53

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           54

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           54

·         How is cocaine used?  -           -           -           -           54

·         Effects of Cocaine       -           -           -           -           54

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           55

·         Coming Down Effect   -           -           -           -           56

·         Long-Term Consequences       -           -           -           56

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           57

 

3.1.5  Ice (Crystal Methamphetamine)          -           -           -           58

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           56

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           56

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           58

·         Effects of Ice   -           -           -           -           -           59

-       Ice Short-term Consequences -           -           -           59

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           60

·         Coming Down             -           -           -           -           -           61

·         Long Term Effects of Ice         -           -           -           61

·         Ice Psychosis   -           -           -           -           -           62

-       Is it Possible for Methamphetamine to produce psychosis

In healthy people?       -           -           -           -           63

-       Methamphetamine Psychosis: How to Spot it  -           63

·         Dependence     -           -           -           -           -           64

·         Mental Health Problems           -           -           -           65

·         Mixing ice with other drugs     -           -           -           65

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           65

·         Treatment for Ice Misuse         -           -           -           65

 

3.1.6 Khat       -           -           -           -           -           -           67

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           67

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           67

·         What does it look like?            -           -           -           -           67

·         Effects of Khat             -           -           -           -           -           67

-       Short-term Effects        -           -           -           -           68

-       Long Term Effects       -           -           -           -           68

·         Mental Health Risks     -           -           -           -           68

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           68

 

3.1.7 Nicotine -           -           -           -           -           -           70

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           70

·         Street Names for Cigarettes      -           -           -           70

·         How is Nicotine Used?            -           -           -           -           70

·         Effects of Nicotine       -           -           -           -           71

·         Risk Factors     -           -           -           -           -           73

·         Long-term Effects        -           -           -           -           73

·         Passive Smoking          -           -           -           -           74

-       Types of Second Hand Smoke -           -           -           75

-       The dangers of Passive smoking in one’s health          -           75

-       Second-Hand Smoke and pregnancy   -           -           75

-       Passive Smoking and Children            -           -           -           76

·         Using Nicotine with other Drugs         -           -           76

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           77

 

3.1.8 Synthetic Cathinones     -           -           -           -           78

·         Types of Cathinones commonly used -           -           78

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           79

·         Effects of Synthetic Cathinones           -           -           -           79

·         Using Synthetic Cathinones with other Drugs -           81

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           81

·         Dependence and Tolerance     -           -           -           82

·         Coming Down Effect   -           -           -           -           82

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           83

·          

                       

3.2 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSANTS -      86

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           86

·         Effects of Depressants -           -           -           -           87

·         Using Depressants with other drugs     -           -           88

·         Health and safety         -           -           -           -           88

·         Dependence and Tolerance     -           -           -           89

3.2.0 Types of Central Nervous System Depressants -         -           90

 

3.2.1 Alcohol   -           -           -           -           -           -           91

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           92

·         Patterns of Alcohol Drinking   -           -           -           92

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           93

·         Effects of Alcohol        -           -           -           -           93

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           94

·         Coming Down             -           -           -           -           -           95

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           95

·         The Pathophysiology of Alcohol Consummation -      96

-       Blackouts         -           -           -           -           -           96

-       Hangovers       -           -           -           -           -           96

-       Alcohol Metabolism    -           -           -           -           97

·         Alcohol and Mental Health      -           -           -           97

·         Alcohol Intoxification -           -           -           -           98

·         Alcohol Use Disorder -           -           -           -           98

·         Tolerance and Dependence     -           -           -           99

·         Mixing Alcohol with other Drugs        -           -           99

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           99

 

3.2.2 Benzodiazepines            -           -           -           -           -           101

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           101

·         Slang Names    -           -           -           -           -           101

·         Types of Benzodiazepines       -           -           -           101

·         Effects of Benzodiazepines      -           -           -           102

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           103

·         Long Term Effects       -           -           -           -           104

·         Using Benzodiazepines with other Drugs        -           104

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           105

 

3.2.3 GHB (Gamma Hydroxybutyrate)        -           -           106

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           106

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           106

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           106

·         Effects of GHB            -           -           -           -           -           107

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           107

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           108

·         Using GHB with other drugs   -           -           -           108

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           108

 

3.2.4 KAVA    -           -           -           -           -           -           110

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           110

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           110

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           111

-       Pacific Islands  -           -           -           -           111

-       Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People    111

-       Herbal Preparations     -           -           -           111

·         Effects of Kava            -           -           -           -           -           111

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           112

·         Impact of Mood and Environment       -           -           113

·         Using Kava with other Drugs -           -           -           114

-       Problems of Long-term Use of Kava   -           114

-       Reducing Harm           -           -           -           -           115

-       Seek Medical Advice for Kava Symptoms       115

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           115

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           116

 

3.3 HALLUCINOGENS        -           -           -           -           119

·         How are they used       -           -           -           -           121

·         Effects of Psychedelics            -           -           -           -           121

·         Bad Trips         -           -           -           -           -           122

·         Flashbacks       -           -           -           -           -           123

·         Using Psychedelics with other drugs   -           -           123

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           124

·         Dependence and Tolerance     -           -           -           124

-       Long Term Psychedelics Usage           -           -           125

-       Treatment for drug Dependence          -           -           125

3.3.0 Types of Hallucinogens             -           -           -           -           126

 

3.3.1 LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)       -           -           127

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           127

·         What it looks like         -           -           -           -           127

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           127

·         How is LSD used?       -           -           -           -           128

·         Effects of LSD             -           -           -           -           -           128

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           128

·         Bad Trips         -           -           -           -           -           129

·         Coming Down             -           -           -           -           -           129

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           129

·         LSD and Mental Health           -           -           -           130

·         Tolerance         -           -           -           -           -           130

·         Mixing LSD with other Drugs -           -           -           130

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           131

 

3.3.2 Ayahuasca         -           -           -           -           -           132

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           133

·         What does it look like?            -           -           -           -           133

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           133

·         Effects of Ayahuasca   -           -           -           -           133

·         Set and Setting             -           -           -           -           -           134

·         Bad Trips         -           -           -           -           -           134

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           135

·         Tolerance and Dependence     -           -           -           135

·         Mixing Ayahuasca with Other Drugs   -           -           135

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           135

 

 

3.3.3 DMT (Dimethyltryptamine)      -           -           -           137

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           137

·         What Does DMT Look Like    -           -           -           137

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           137

·         How is DMT used?      -           -           -           -           138

·         Effects of DMT            -           -           -           -           138

-       Impact of Mood Environment -           -           139

-       Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           140

·         DMT and Mental Health          -           -           -           140

·         Bad Trips         -           -           -           -           -           140

·         Flashbacks       -           -           -           -           -           140

·         Tolerance and Dependence     -           -           -           141

 

3.3.4 NBOMes (N-methoxybenzyl)    -           -           -           142

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           142

·         Other Names for NBOMes       -           -           -           142

·         What do they look like?           -           -           -           142

·         Effects of NBOMes      -           -           -           -           142

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           143

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           144

·         Taking NBOMes with other Drugs      -           -           144

 

3.3.5 Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)             -           -           -           145

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           145

·         What do they look like?           -           -           -           -           145

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           145

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           145

·         Effects of Magic Mushrooms   -           -           -           145

·         Mushroom Poisoning   -           -           -           -           146

·         Effects of Poisonous Mushrooms         -           -           146

·         Agaricus Xanthodermus (Yellow-Coloured Mushroom)          147

·         Death Cap (Amanita Phalloides)          -           -           -           148

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           149

·         Bad Trips         -           -           -           -           -           149

·         Coming Down -           -           -           -           -           150

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           150

·         Using Mushrooms with other drugs     -           -           150

·         Tolerance and Dependence     -           -           -           151

·         Health and safety         -           -           -           -           151

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           151

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           152

3.4 CANNABINOIDS            -           -           -           -           -           155

·         Classes of cannabinoids           -           -           -           156

·         The Endocannabinoid System -           -           -           157

·         What do cannabinoids do?      -           -           -           157

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           157

·         Effects of cannabinoids           -           -           -           -           157

·         Cannabinoids and other drugs             -           -           -           158

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           159

·         Dependence and Tolerance     -           -           -           159

 

3.4.0 Types of Cannabinoids -           -           -           -           160

3.4.1 Butane Hash Oil (BHO)            -           -           -           -           161

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           161

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           161

·         How is it used -           -           -           -           -           161

·         Effects of BHO            -           -           -           -           -           162

·         Long-Term effects       -           -           -           -           163

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           163

 

3.4.2 Cannabidol (CBD)         -           -           -           -           164

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           164

·         What does it look like?            -           -           -           -           164

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           165

·         How is it used  -           -           -           -           -           165

·         Effects of CBD            -           -           -           -           -           165

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           166

·         Mixing CBD with other Drugs             -           -           -           167

 

3.4.2 Cannabis            -           -           -           -           -           168

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           168

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           168

·         Historical Antecedents of Canabis       -           -           168

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           170

·         Effects of Cannabis      -           -           -           -           170

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           171

·         Using cannabis with other drugs          -           -           172

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           172

 

 

 

3.4.4 Medicinal Cannabis       -           -           -           -           173

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           173

·         The Endocanabinoid System   -           -           -           173

·         Types and forms of Medicinal cannabis          -           -           174

-       Why smoking cannabis for medical Purpose is

Not recommended       -           -           -           174

-       Side Effects      -           -           -           -           175

-       What Medicinal cannabis products are available         175

-       What can medicinal cannabis be used for?      176

·         The side effects of Medicinal Cannabis Treatment       176

·         General Cautions         -           -           -           -           177

 

3.4.5 Synthetic Cannabinoids -           -           -           -           179

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           179

·         What do Synthetic Cannabinoids Look like?   -           179

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           180

·         How are Synthetic Cannabinoids used?           -           -           180

·         Effects of Synthetic Cannabinoids       -           -           180

·         Set and Setting             -           -           -           -           -           181

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           181

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           182

·         Tolerance and Dependence     -           -           -           182

·         Mixing Synthetic cannabinoids with other drugs         -           182

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           183

-       Regulating Intake        -           -           -           183

-       Packaging that gives the Wrong Impression    184

-       When it should be avoided at all costs             -           184

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           185

 

3.5 OPIOIDS -           -           -           -           -           -           187

·         The opioids receptor system    -           -           -           188

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           189

·         Opioid-Based Medications       -           -           -           189

·         Effect of Opioids         -           -           -           -           190

·         Long-Term Effects Include      -           -           -           191

·         Using opioids with other Drugs           -           -           -           191

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           191

·         Pain Management Strategies    -           -           -           192

·         Tolerance and Dependence     -           -           -           192

 

3.5.0 Types of Opioids            -           -           -           -           -           193

3.5.1 Buprenorphine   -           -           -           -           -           194

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           194

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           194

-       Pharmaceutical Names             -           -           -           194

-       Slang Names    -           -           -           -           195

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           195

·         How effective is it?      -           -           -           -           195

·         Buprenorphine Maintenance Therapy  -           -           196

·         Therapy Component    -           -           -           -           196

·         Advantages of Buprenorphine Maintenance over

Heroin Use      -           -           -           -           -           197

·         Effect of Buprenorphine          -           -           -           198

·         Side Effects      -           -           -           -           -           198

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           198

 

3.5.2 Codeine  -           -           -           -           -           -           200

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           200

·         Why is this Medication Prescribed?     -           -           200

·         Mode of Administration of Codeine    -           -           201

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           201

·         Effects of Codeine       -           -           -           -           201

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           202

·         Long-Term Effects of Codeine -           -           -           204

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           204

 

 

3.5.3 Buprenorphine – Long Acting Injectable         -           206

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           206

·         What is depot Buprenorphine?            -           -           -           206

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           207

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           207

·         Effects of Buprenorphine         -           -           -           209

 

3.5.4 Fentanyl             -           -           -           -           -           -           212

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           212

·         Illicitly Manufactured Fentanyl            -           -           -           212

·         Street Names    -           -           -           -           -           213

·         What it looks like         -           -           -           -           213

·         Medicinal Use -           -           -           -           -           213

·         Illicit Use         -           -           -           -           -           213

·         Effects of Fentanyl       -           -           -           -           214

·         Fentanyl Overdose       -           -           -           -           215

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           216     

·         Using Fentanyl with other drugs          -           -           216

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           217

 

3.5.5 Heroin    -           -           -           -           -           -           218

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           218

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           218

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           219

·         Effects of Heroin?        -           -           -           -           219

·         Heroin Overdose         -           -           -           -           220

·         Coming Down -           -           -           -           -           220

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           221

·         Using Heroin with Other Drugs           -           -           -           221

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           221

 

3.5.6 Methadone         -           -           -           -           -           223

·         Chemical Structure     -           -           -           -           224

·         Other Names   -           -           -           -           -           224

·         How is it used?           -           -           -           -           -           224

·         How effective is it?     -           -           -           -           225

·         Advantages of Methadone Maintenance over Heroin

Use     -           -           -           -           -           -           225

·         Effects of Methadone -           -           -           -           225

-       Side Effects     -           -           -           -           226

-       Dose-related effects    -           -           -           226

·         Overdose        -           -           -           -           -           227

·         Long-Term effects      -           -           -           -           227

·         Withdrawal     -           -           -           -           -           227

 

3.5.7 Naloxone            -           -           -           -           -           -           228

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           228

·         Counselling Intervention         -           -           -           228

·         How is it used -           -           -           -           -           229

·         Effects of Naloxone     -           -           -           -           229

-       Side Effects      -           -           -           -           229

·         Naloxone and Opioid Overdose          -           -           -           230

 

3.5.8 Opium    -           -           -           -           -           -           231

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           231

·         History of Opium         -           -           -           -           231

·         What does it look like?            -           -           -           -           232

·         Slang Names    -           -           -           -           -           232

·         How is opium used?    -           -           -           -           232

·         Effects of Opium         -           -           -           -           232

-       Opium effect on the Mind        -           -           233

-       Opium Effect on the body       -           -           232

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           233

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           234

·         Opium and Lead Poisoning     -           -           -           234

·         Mixing Opium with other Drugs          -           -           234

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           235

 

3.5.9 Oxycodone         -           -           -           -           -           236

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           237

·         Types of Oxycodone   -           -           -           -           237

·         How is Oxycodone used?        -           -           -           237

·         Effects of Oxycodone -           -           -           -           237

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           238

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           239

·         Using Oxycodone with other Drugs    -           -           239

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           239

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           241

 

3.6 DISSOCIATIVES             -           -           -           -           -           244

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           245

·         Effects of Dissociatives            -           -           -           -           245

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           246

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           247

·         Dependence and Tolerance     -           -           -           247

 

3.6.0  Types of Dissociatives -           -           -           -           249

3.6.1 Ketamine           -           -           -           -           -           250

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           251

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           251

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           251

·         Effects of Ketamine     -           -           -           -           251

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           252

·         Coming Down             -           -           -           -           -           252

·         Long-Term Effect        -           -           -           -           252

·         Ketamine Bladder Syndrome   -           -           -           253

·         Using Ketamine with Other Drugs       -           -           253

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           253

 

3.6.2 Methoxetamine -           -           -           -           -           254

·         Chemical Structure     -           -           -           -           254

·         How is it used?           -           -           -           -           254

·         Effects of Methoxetamine (MXE)       -           -           254

·         Using Methoxetamine with other Drugs         -           255

·         Health and Safety       -           -           -           -           256

·         Dependence and Tolerance    -           -           -           256

·         Urinary Tract Effects -           -           -           -           256

·         Coming Dowm/Withdrawal    -           -           -           257

 

3.6.3 Nitrous Oxide    -           -           -           -           -           258

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           258

·         How is it used?            -           -           -           -           -           258

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           258

·         Effects of Nitrous Oxide          -           -           -           258

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           259

·         Mixing with other drugs          -           -           -           260

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           260

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           261

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           262

3.7 EMPATHOGENS            -           -           -           -           -           264

·         Empathogens and the Brain     -           -           -           266

·         How are they used?     -           -           -           -           266

·         Street Names    -           -           -           -           -           267

·         Effects of Empathogens           -           -           -           267

·         Empathogens and Other Drugs            -           -           -           268

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           268

·         Dependence and Tolererance -           -           -           268

 

3.7.0 Types of Empathogens -           -           -           -           269

3.7.1 Ethylone             -           -           -           -           -           -           270

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           270

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           270

·         How is ethylone used? -           -           -           -           270

·         Effects of Ethylone      -           -           -           -           270

·         Impact of Mood and Environment       -           -           271

·         Using Ethylone with other drugs         -           -           272

·         Health and Safety        -           -           -           -           272

·         Dependence and Tolerance     -           -           -           272

3.7.2 MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)   -           273

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           274

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           274

·         How is MDMA used?  -           -           -           -           274

·         Effects of MDMA        -           -           -           -           274

·         MDMA, Dehydration and Overheating            -           -           275

·         Coming Down -           -           -           -           -           276

·         Long-Term Effects       -           -           -           -           277

·         Mixing MDMA with other Drugs         -           -           277

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           277

3.7.3 Mephedrone       -           -           -           -           -           279

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           279

·         Other Names    -           -           -           -           -           279

·         How is Mephedrone used?      -           -           -           279

·         Effects of Mephedrone            -           -           -           -           280

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           281

·         Coming Down             -           -           -           -           -           281

·         Long-Term Consequences       -           -           -           281

·         Using Mephedrone with other Drugs   -           -           281

·         Withdrawal      -           -           -           -           -           282

 

3.7.4 PMA and PMMA           -           -           -           -           283

·         Chemical Structure      -           -           -           -           283

·         How are they Used?    -           -           -           -           283

·         Slang Names    -           -           -           -           -           283

·         Effects of PMA and PMMA     -           -           -           283

·         Physical Health Risks  -           -           -           -           284

·         Overdose         -           -           -           -           -           285

·         Long-Term Consequences       -           -           -           285

·         Using PMA or PMMA with other Drugs          -           285

·         Addiction and Tolerance PMA or PMMA        -           285

·         Summary         -           -           -           -           -           286

 

SECTION 4: COUNSELLING FOR SUBSTANCE ABUSE AND SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS .

4.0 Defining Counselling -      -           -           -           -           289

·         Substance Abuse and Substance Use Disorder Counselor       290

-       Drug Addiction Counselors Responsibilities - 291

-       Services Provided        -           -           -           291

·         Substance Abuse vs. Addiction           -           -           -           291

4.1 Causes & Risk Factors for Addiction         -           -           292

4.2 Types & Levels of Rehab Treatment         -           -           293

·         Detoxification -           -           -           -           -           293

·         Inpatient/residential Rehabilitation       -           -           294

·         Outpatient rehab & Intensive Outpatient Programs-     294

4.3 Drug Addiction Therapy Programs            -           -           -           295

·         Addiction Treatment    -           -           -           -           295

·         Behavioural Therapy   -           -           -           -           296

-       Individual, Group & family Therapy   -           296

-       Cognitive Behavioural Therapy           (CBT)  -           297

-       Contingency Management (CM)          -           297

-       Motivational Interviewing (MI)            -           -           299

-       Dialectal Behavioural Therapy (DBT) -           300

-       Eye movement Desensitization and

Reprocessing (EMDR)             -           -           -           301

-       Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) 302

-       Seeking Safety & Other Trauma Focused

Therapies         -           -           -           -           304

-       Matrix Model   -           -           -           -           305

-       12-Step Facilitation      -           -           -           305

-       Other,  Holistic & Alternative Drug Abuse

Therapy           -           -           -           -           306

·         Conclusion      -           -           -           -           -           308